Corsi di studio in
Farmacia - Chimica e tecnologia farmaceutiche

The course aims at clarifying the molecular and cellular basis of human body functions taking advantage of the anticipated notions of body anatomy, cell biology, physics and chemistry principles acquired in the preceding semesters. The classes are at 1st semester of the 2^nd year. They include 72 hours of frontal lecturesf or clarifications, exercising on multiple-choice tests for a total of 9 transfer credits. 

At the end of the course, the student will have acquired the molecular principles that are at the basis of body organs function and regulate the integrative actions among different organs. The knowledge of the basic principle of Physiology will help the students to critically understand the molecular, cellular and integrative aspects of most important diseases and body dysfunctions of which we know (or begin to know) the causes and the main therapeutic approaches. The student will increase the self-interest toward Human Physiology as a leading professional subject to better recognize both the origins of most important pathologies and the rationale of the pharmaceutical and clinical approach followed to prevent and cure them.

Physiology of membranes – The structure of cell membrane: membrane proteins and phospholipids. Diffusion, osmosis and osmolarity. Diffusion of ions and molecules across membranes: simple diffusion through the lipid bilayer, diffusion of ions through protein channels, facilitated diffusion through carriers. The active transport. The primary active transport: the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase, the H⁺/K⁺-ATPase, the Ca²⁺-ATPase and the H⁺-ATPase. The secondary active transport: the Na⁺-dependent cotransporters, the Na⁺-dependent exchangers, the Cl^-/HCO₃^- exchanger. Endocytosis and exocytosis. Membrane junctions: gap junctions and tight junctions. Ion and water transport across epithelial tissues.  

Electrophysiology of the cell membrane – Passive properties of cell membrane: membrane capacity and membrane resistance. Chemical equilibrium across membranes: the ion gradients, the electrochemical potential and the Nernst law. The membrane resting potential and the Goldman equation. Electrical models of the cell membrane. The ionic basis of action potential: the Na⁺ hypothesis and the Hodgkin-Huxley’s model. The voltage-clamp and the patch-clamp. Molecular physiology of ion channels: the voltage-gated Na⁺, K⁺ and Ca²⁺ channels. The receptor-activated ion channels.

The physiology of the nervous system – The structure of neurons. The graduate potential and the electrotonic propagation. Propagation of action potentials in neurons: cable properties of the membrane and the “saltatory conduction”. Synaptic transmission: electrical and chemical synapses. The presynaptic and postsynaptic potential. Inhibitory and excitatory synapses. The neuromuscular junction. Neurotransmitters and their receptors. Presynaptic vesicles and quantal nature of vesicle release. The neurosecretion: the role of Ca²⁺ and Ca²⁺ channels in transmitter release, the SNARE complex. Toxins, drugs and neuropathologies affecting transmitter release. The different role of neurotransmitters: ACh, GABA, glycine, glutamate, biogenic amines, ATP and peptides. The autonomic nervous system: the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. Synaptic integration: temporal and spatial summation. Synaptic plasticity, facilitation and long-term potentiation.

Sensory physiology – General principles: sensory receptors and primary sensory coding. Slowly and rapidly adapting receptors. Specific sensory systems: The somatic sensation: type and function of mechanoreceptors. The cold-sensing and warm-sensing thermoreceptors. Pain sensation: nociceptors, hyperalgesia, the referred pain. The “gate of pain”. Neuronal pathways of somato-sensory system. Vision: the eye anatomy and the optics of vision. Photoreceptor cells and phototransduction: the cGMP-activated channels, transducin, the rhodopsin cycle. The retina and the neural pathways of vision: bipolar cells, horizontal cells, amacrine cells, ganglion cells. The visual cortex. Hearing: the cochlea and sound transmission in the ear. Hair cells of the organ of Corti. The vestibular system: the semicircular canals, the utricle and saccule. Vestibular information and pathways. The chemical sense: taste and smell. 

The cell physiology of muscles – The skeletal muscle: cellular and molecular structure. Molecular mechanisms of skeletal muscle contraction: the sliding filaments and the length-tension curve. The role of troponin, tropomyosin, Ca²⁺ and ATP in contraction. Excitation-contraction coupling: the T-tubule, the sarcoplasmic reticulum, the tubule DHP receptors, the ryanodine receptors and the Ca²⁺-sparks. Mechanics of single-fiber contraction: isometric and isotonic contraction. Twitch-contractions and tetanus. Types of skeletal muscle fibers. Whole-muscle contraction: the motor units and the control of muscle tension. The cardiac muscle: cellular structure, heartbeat coordination, sequence of excitation, cardiac action potentials and excitation of the SA node. The smooth muscle: cellular structure, mechanisms of contraction and its control. The sources of cytosolic Ca²⁺ controlling contraction.

Cardiovascular physiology – Blood and hemostasis. The constituents of the circulatory system. The heart: structure, innervation and heartbeat coordination. The autonomic nervous control of heartbeat: muscarinic and b-adrenergic modulation. The electrocardiogram: methods of measurements, interpretation of ECG waves. The cardiac pump and the heart sounds. Mechanical events of the cardiac cycle: systole and diastole. The atrial, ventricular and aortic pressure. The systolic and diastolic volumes. The pressure-volume cycle and the cardiac work. Definition and control of cardiac output. The Frank-Starling law and the extrinsic neuro-hormonal controls of heartbeat. Effects of sympathetic stimulation on ventricular contraction.

The vascular system – Hemodynamics: pressure, flow and resistance. The Leonardo and the Poiseuille laws. The arteries: the mean arterial pressure, the vascular resistance, the arterial compliance and the pulse pressure. The arterioles and their local controls: active hyperemia, reactive hyperemia, blood flow autoregulation. Extrinsic controls: the intrinsic tone and its sympathetic and hormonal regulation. The endothelial cells and the regulation of blood flow: production and vasodilating action of NO. The capillaries and the microcirculation. Fluid filtration and absorption across the capillary walls: the four Starling forces. The veins: determinants of the venous pressure and the effects of gravity. The skeletal muscle pump and the venous return. Regulation of systemic arterial pressure. The baroreceptor reflexes: the arterial baroreceptors, the medullary cardiovascular center and the compensatory mechanisms of arterial pressure. Physiological aspects of hypertension and other cardiovascular diseases. he respiratory system. Ventilation and lung mechanics. The alveolar and the intrapleural pressure. The lung compliance and the surface tension at the air-water interface: the role of surfactant and the Laplace law. Lung volumes and capacities. Alveolar ventilation. The physical-chemistry of gas exchanges. The respiratory membrane. The O₂ and CO₂ diffusion capacity and the ventilation/perfusion ratio. The lung and bronchial circulation. The alveolar and tissue gas pressures (PO₂ and PCO₂). O₂ transport in blood: hemoglobin and moglobin. The O₂-hemoglobin dissociation curve. Effects of pH, temperature and 2,3-DPG on the O₂-hemoglobin saturation curve. Transport and different forms of CO₂ in the blood. The Haldane effect, the carbonic anhydrase and the HCO₃^-/Cl^- exchanger. The acid-base equilibrium and the buffering capacity of H₂CO₃/HCO₃^-. Metabolic and respiratory acidosis and alkalosis. Control of respiration. The brainstem control centers of respiratory rhythms. Pulmonary stretch receptors. Control reflexes of ventilation mediated by central and peripheral chemoreceptors. The homeostasis of plasmatic pH.

The renal functions – The body fluid regulation. Structure of the kidney and urinary system: the nefron and the renal circulation. The glomerular filtration: forces involved and the rate of glomerula filtration. The concept of renal clearance. The clearance of inulin, glucose, creatinin and PAI. Formation and composition of urine. Molecular mechanisms of tubular reasorption and secretion. Reasorption by mediated transport of Na⁺, Cl^-, H₂O, glucose and aminoacids. The recycle of urea. The escretion of urea, Na⁺ and K⁺. Reasorption of Na⁺ mediated by aldosterone. The Henle-loop and the countercurrent-multiplier system: the interstitial fluid osmolarity gradient and the vasa recta. Renal sodium regulation: the macula densa and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. The renal water regulation: osmoreceptor and baroreceptor control of vasopressin secretion. The hydrogen ion regulation: secretion of H⁺, reasorption and production of new bicarbonate. Reasorption and secretion of K⁺ and Ca²⁺. Regulation of the acid-base equilibrium. Renal responses to acidosis and alkalosis. The HPO₃^--/H₂PO₄^- and the NH₃/NH₄⁺ pH buffers. The micturition and the hemodialysis. 

The endocrine system – The hormones: synthesis, release and mechanisms of action. The secretory and target cells: membrane receptors, coupling to G proteins, second messengers, intracellular receptor systems. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland. The hormones of neurohypophysis: ADH and oxytocin. The hormones of adenohypophysis: growth hormone (GH), prolactin, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), luteininzing hormone (LH) and the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). The adrenal glands. The hormones of the adrenal cortex: the mineralcorticoids, the glucocorticoids and the androgens. The hormones of the adrenal medulla: the catecholamines and their action. The thyroid gland: synthesis and action of thyroid hormones. Hormones of the pancreatic islets: insulin, glucagon and somatostatin. The reproductive glands and the sexual hormones.

Teaching will be held in presence i, and it will consist of 72 hours.

written exam (90 quiz and 3 descriptive questions)

During the course, periodic reviews of the  covered topics and simulation of exams test will be carried out.

All the  material is available online  as a .pdf files of the lessons.